Khairuddin Al-Tunisi

Khairuddin al-Tunisi was neither a Tunisian nor a real intellectual. However, many authors of the history of modern Arabic thought observe him as a meritorious figure for Tunisia and a prominent intellectual in the contemporary Arabic thought. Khairuddin was genealogically a Caucasus belonged to Syarkasy, a province in Russia in the Middle Asia. The year of his birth was unclear but the writers pointed out that it was around 1822 since a Tunisian aristocrat, Ahmad Bey, adopted him on 1839 when he was 17 years old. As the “son” of an aristocrat, he received a fine education, achieved good career, and eventually occupied various important governmental positions in Tunisia as well as in Istanbul, the capital city of the Ottoman Empire. 

Khairuddin was more a bureaucrat than an intellectual. It is due to his book Aqwam al-Masalik fi Ma’rifat Ahwal al-Mamalik and several articles that people memorized him as more than just ordinary official who run his career successfully. Even so, he was equated with Thahtawi, Abduh and other modern Arab intellectuals due to that work.

Before he was adopted by Ahmad Bey, Khairuddin lived with his parents in Caucasus until their death in the battle between the Ottoman Empire and Russia. His fate changed when Ahmad Bey adopted and brought him to Tunisia. Khairuddin learnt Arabic and French languages, and learnt religious knowledge like other muslim children in Tunisia. He joined the military school after graduation. In 1852, due to his extraordinary achievement at the school, Ahmad Bey sent him to Paris to carry on the study. He lived in France for four years. Besides studying military, he read about politics, law and philosophy.

As he returned from France, Khairuddin was entrusted as the Tunisian Minister of Marine Affairs for six years. He was frequently involved
in the formulation of constitution, including the Tunisian Constitution of 1860.
Bey Sadiq, the Tunisian ruler who relied on Khairuddin, appointed him as the
head of High Council afterward. In 1859, he visited Istanbul as his first official visit. When Tunisia was stricken by a bad financial crisis involving the
International Committee, Khairuddin visited Istanbul asking for help to solve
the problem in his country. In 1873, he was entrusted as Prime Minister for
four years. At that time, Khairuddin initiated his reformation program. He
reformed the state’s administration, organized religious institutions and built
various social infrastructures.

In 1877, Khairuddin’s political opponents finished his political career off,
following various internal and external upheavals in Tunisia. Sultan Abdul
Hamid, who heard his miserable fate, invited him to the palace. A year later,
he was appointed as the prime minister, a position triggering hatred and
jealousy toward him among his Turkish colleagues. That “Tunisian” resigned a year later. He decided to retire and spent his old time in Istanbul until his death in 1889.

The book Aqwam al-Masalik,written by Khairuddin as he was the head of High Council, was welcomed well by the Tunisian and Ottoman politicians at that time. It published in Tunis in 1867 and republished afterward in Istanbul in two languages, Arabic and France. The French version was Reformes Necessaires aux Etats Musulmans supervised directly by Khairuddin.

The book explains about the history, social-political structure, and the power of European countries. By providing the general illustration about the history and social structure of European society, Khairuddin tried to remind his muslim readers on the model of advance and progress to follow. To him, Europe currently is in the peak of historical achievement. They built their civilization by hard work. Muslim should imitate their hard work in order to advance their civilization like those of European countries.

To Khairuddin, muslim should learn the knowledge and ideas developed in the west. Taking western knowledge is not against Islam. Even Islam, to him, suggested muslim to learn the knowledge from anywhere. Khairuddin
had to say that since he knew that some traditional ulama forbid or doubted western intellectual achievements.

To Khairuddin, Europe has advanced not because they are Christian, nor Arabic has declined because they are muslim. A nation’s progress, to him, does not relate to its religion. If only Christianity cause the Europe’s advance, Vatican must be the most advanced country in this world, and not the most backward [Khairuddin; 1867, p. 8-10 in Hourani; 1983, p. 91]. In other word, muslim should not pursue Europe’s religion but the advance’s preconditions they built along hundred years.

Wathaniyyah Islamiyyah

Apart from Thahtawi, who interpreted the concept of wathan as “nation”, Khairuddin interpreted it as “Ummah” in the communal meaning. In Khairuddin’s view, the concept of wathan has a wider meaning than the similar concept perceived by Thahtawi. To Khairuddin, this concept did not only include the Tunisian or Arabic civilians, but also the communities united by religious tie. In other word, the wathaniyyah intended by Khairuddin is wathaniyyah-islamiyyah (Islamic Nationalism) and not only wathaniyyah-syu’ubiyyah (Tribal nationalism).

Khairuddin’s view of concept of nation was the reflection of his loyal political conduct in supporting the Ottoman Caliphate. To him, muslim countries must be united under one political power: the Caliphate. This view is related to Khairuddin’s experience when he was the Prime Minister and when the France almost colonized Tunisis at the time. If he did not announce, albeit diplomatically, that Tunisis was an integral part of the Ottoman Empire, the France would’ve definitely attacked Tunisia (it was after the Ottoman Empire declined that the France invaded this state later).

Khairuddin’s conception of “ummah” was the origin of “pan-Islamism” which later on was developed by Jamaluddin al-Afghani and his followers. Khairuddin seemed to be tied to the paradigm of caliphate, just like al-Afghani, even though he had lived in and sensed the democratic atmosphere in France. His childhood and intimacy with the royal family has influenced his political conduct to support the sustainability of the Ottoman Caliphate. However, Khairuddin had actually tried to be critical to the caliphate system enforced in Turkey.  He for instance talked about the excessive power of the sultan, which made them difficult to be controlled when they made mistakes.

Khairuddin’s acceptance of the Islamic political concept was not only because
of his intimacy with the Ottoman authority.  But it also due to his belief that
if the Islamic political system is enforced appropriately, it will be similar
with the political system found in European country. Khairuddin compared
several political instruments in Europe such as “Minister,” as the head of
nation’s assistant in the modern political system, to “Wazir” in Islamic
government.  Similarly, the concept of “parliament” is equal to “ahl al-hal
wa al-‘aqd.” []